Security via technology Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Security via technology - Research Paper Example Public key cryptography is a combination of elaborately created procedures and standards that are meant to protect communications from being listened to or tampered with or being affected by impersonation attacks. Public key encryption enables the free distribution of public keys and only the people who have been permitted are allowed to read the data that has been subjected to encryption through this key (Oppliger, 2011). Generally sending encrypted data entails encrypting the data to be sent with the encryption key that belongs to the receiver, and upon receiving the message, the receiver will decrypt the message using his or her own private key. In comparison to the symmetric-key encryption, the public –key encryption needs a lot more processing and may not be a practical option for the encryption and decryption of large amounts of information. Nonetheless, a public key can be used to send a symmetric key that can ultimately be used in the decryption of more data, which is the method that is employed by SSL/TLS protocol. Additionally, the decryption of data that has been encrypted using a private key can be decrypted using a public key that corresponds to it although this approach is not recommended when that data to be encrypted is sensitive (Vaudenay, 2005). Nevertheless, since it implies that any person who holds the public key, which is usually made available to everyone, has the capacity to decrypt the data. However, private key encryption is still useful as it means that the private key can be employed in signing data with digital signatures, which are critical requirements in electronic commerce as well as other cryptographic applications of a commercial nature. Mozilla Firefox, as well as other client software, can employ public keys wen confirming that a message has been signed with the proper private key and that it has not be interfered with after being signed. Even though the worldwide

Omo Detergent In Nigeria

Omo Detergent In Nigeria Omo is manufactured and distributed by Unilever Nigeria Plc, which is a subsidiary of the multinational food and vitality company, Unilever whose corporate mission is to add vitality to life. They are manufacturers and suppliers of consumer goods in the foods, home care and personal care divisions. Unilever Nigeria Plc was incorporated on 11th April, 1923 as the Lever Brothers (West Africa) Ltd (OceanicPearl 2009). The company began as a trading organisation founded by Lord Leverhulme in Nigeria and West Africa. It started as a soap manufacturing organisation and has remained over the years to become one of Nigerias oldest surviving manufacturing organisations. The company has over the years diversified into the manufacture of foods, personal care products and non-soapy detergents. This was done through mergers and acquisitions, some of which include the acquisition of Lipton Nigeria Ltd in 1985 and Cheesebrough Pond Industries Ltd in 1988 (UnileverNigeria 2010a). In line with the ot her parts of the multinational group, the companys name was changed in 2001 to Unilever Nigeria Plc. It was listed on the Nigerian Stock Exchange in 1973 and 49% of its equity are owned by Nigerians at the moment while 51% is held by Unilever Overseas Holdings BV (OceanicPearl 2009). KEY MARKET SEGMENTS AND SIZE OF MARKET Unilever Nigeria Plc is involved in three main market segments and they are: Foods The brands of Unilever in this segment are Blue Band margarine, Lipton tea, Knorr and Royco food seasonings. Blue band margarine dominates the margarine market with only few strong competitors. Lipton tea is also the dominant brand in the Nigerian tea market, with relatively little competition from local manufacturers. However, the Nigerian tea consumption is very small due to the hot climate and the fact that consumers prefer chocolate drinks to tea. Knorr and Royco are different brands of a glutamate-based food seasoning. Although they possess a considerable market share, they have very stiff competition from the Maggi brand of Nestlà © Nigeria which is the dominant seasoning brand in the market. Home care This segment of the fast moving consumer goods market is dominated by multinational companies like Unilever, Procter and Gamble and PZ Cussons although there is competition from other local manufacturers. This dominance is due to the large amount of capital assigned to marketing by the multinationals, which most local manufacturers ignore either due to lack of capital or ignorance. The key Unilever brands in this segment are Omo and Key. Omo comes in a powder form while Key is a green bar soap. The Omo detergent comes in various pack sizes while the bar soap come in two sizes. These products are mainly produced for hand washing although Omo may be used for machine wash. Personal care division Currently, Nigerian households spend US $5 billion annually in the personal care category (Tura 2010). It is a very competitive segment of the Nigerian market and boasts a lot of local manufacturers. Investors are drawn into this segment because of the low barriers to entry and exit. Also, government policies favour the establishment of small-scale factories in this segment with tax incentives granted the organisations. However, multinational organisations such as Unilever and PZ Cussons still control large portion of the segment. Unilevers brands in this segment include Lux, Pears and Sunsilk. Pears is a petroleum jelly brand while Lux and Sunsilk are brands that cover body and hair care products although Sunsilk is cheaper and was created to cater for the low income segment of the Nigerian society. Size of market Because food, home care and personal care are essential to all humans, the market for most of Unilever Nigerias products including Omo can be seen as the entire population of the country. The household consumer goods segment has been growing steadily due to the increased marketing by companies, stimulated by growing demand. Detergents for hand washing have not been left out. The unsteady power situation in Nigeria favour hand washing rather than machine washing and so most of the washing detergents produced in the country are made for hand-wash applications. With a population of over 140million people and an annual population growth rate of 1.999% according to the 2009 estimates (Indexmundi 2009), Nigeria presents a large market for powder detergents. With an urban population percentage of 48% (2008 census) and 97% of the population below 65years (Indexmundi 2009), the market potentials are huge. The Nigerian population is made up of an upper wealthy class that only constitutes about 10% of the population. The middle and lower class make up the remaining 90% with the lower class having the lion share. The chart below shows the Living Standard Measure (LSM) of the adult population in 2008. The Living Standard Measure is a wealth proxy calculated based on the ownership of certain goods and degree of urbanization and ranges from 1 (indigent and rural) to 10 (affluent and urban) (Ladipo 2008). PRODUCT DESCRIPTION AND KEY DATA Omo is a white detergent powder that is used for washing clothes. It is produced specifically for hand washing although it can be used for machine washing as well. Omo is a chemical-based detergent with excellent stain removal properties. It comes in 35 and 50grams sachets and also in 200, 400 and 900grams packs. Because of the relatively low income level of the average Nigerian family, the small product sachets have been favoured over the years. Omos brand colours are white, blue and red, with the word Omo written in blue and as uppercase characters on the packaging, which carries the brands colours. Omo is one of the oldest brand names in the household care category in Nigeria. For a long time, Omo was the generic name for non-soap detergents, in most parts of Nigeria. However, increased competition has changed this. MARKETING DATA OF OMO The turnover for the powder detergents segment and Omos market share are given in the table below. NGN represents the currency of Nigeria, the Nigerian naira. The overall sales volume/turnover decrease from 2008 to 2009 was due to fall in demand caused by a high inflation rate. The increase in sales value is as a result of higher product prices rather than an increase in sales volume. However, though there was a decrease in sales volume of powder detergents in 2009, turnover has increased greatly over figures from the early 90s due to the introduction of the more affordable economy-sized sachets of product and improvements in road network across the country which made rural markets more accessible. The turnover for Omo has experienced a gradual decline over the years as consumers now see it as an old and ineffective product and hence prefer the competitions products. The volume and value share of Omo also decreased over the year due to the wrong perception of the product by the consumers and very stiff competition in the segment with several players like Eko Resources Ltd., introducing cheaper alternatives into the market. Main competitors The ability to constantly innovate and make exciting offers to customers is a very important attribute needed to survive and excel in a competitive market (Jobber 1998) like the Nigerian detergent market. Detergents purchase has a low level of involvement and so consumers are quick to try something they perceive better. There are several products that compete in this market segment, their large numbers being due to the low barriers to entry and exit for this market segment. Of the many brands that exist, the three main competitors of Omo are: So Klin washing powder This is a leader in the mass market category of the powder detergents market. It is manufactured by Eko Supreme Resources Ltd., jointly owned by Nigerian and Asian investors and was introduced into the market in 1995. The manufacturers spotted a gap in the market since prior to this time, Omo and the other detergents did not come in economy packs (products came in packs of at least 200grams) and were beyond the reach of the greater populace. They introduced sachets of 15grams and 30grams to cater for the low income earners. This caused them to take over much of the competitors market share. Also, on entry, the white colour of the powder strengthened its claim to provide superior cleaning with just small amounts, at a time when the other players including Omo still came as blue powders. After gaining grounds with its economy-sized products, it also ventured into the realm of the existing main players of the industry by introducing products in 200g, 400g and 900g packs to cater for hig h-end customers. At the end of the 2008 retail year, So Klin emerged second in the powder detergent category mainly the 13 to 35kg segments but still undisputedly remain the first in the sachet (15 and 30grams) segment, which accounts for 50% of the powder detergent business in Nigeria (The Nation 2009). Ariel washing powder This product is manufactured by Procter Gamble Nigeria, which started operations in Nigeria in 1992. It also comes in the form of a white powder and occupies a sizeable share of the detergent market although it is a sort of premium detergent. It was introduced in comparatively large sized packs and cost on the average more than its other competitors for same-sized products. This greater price premium was perceived by most of the AB and C1 groups (using British social classification as given by White (2000)) as a sign of higher quality and became popular especially among Nigerians who knew of their operations outside the country. Procter Gamble Nigeria undertakes aggressive advertising and has over time gradually increased its market share. With the introduction of their economy sized products (15 and 30grams), their customer base increased making them the second major competitor of Omo. Elephant detergent This detergent is manufactured by PZ Cussons Nigeria, a company that commenced business in Nigeria as a West African merchant. Elephant detergent is the third major competitor of Omo in the detergents category. Prior to the entry of the Procter Gamble brand Ariel, it was the main competitor of Omo and together with Omo, occupied more than 40% of the detergents category. Elephant detergent over the years has grown into an umbrella brand that has several detergent products under it such as the Elephant Gold and Elephant colour. It started out as a blue detergent packaged in 200g packs but has transformed into a white detergent following the change in the Nigerian consumer preference. On the wake of the So Klin revolution, brands like Omo tried to quickly reposition while Elephant dawdled resulting in a severe loss of market share. It now comes in economy packs although its strongholds lie in the large sized packs (200grams and above). LIFECYCLE OF OMO WASHING POWDER Omo detergent powder is in its mature phase at the moment. It was introduced over 40 years ago and its early stage was marked with great acceptance as the market had very few players predominantly Elephant detergent. This established the brand and led to a very rapid growth phase through the 80s and early 90s. By the late 90s, the product entered its mature phase. Its market share has since been fairly constant with slight increases or decreases yearly depending on marketing activities. This is evidenced by the gradual fall in market share (from 17.4percent in 2008 to 16.3percent in 2009) as seen in Table 1. Unilever Nigeria constantly undertakes several activities to extend the life of the product. These include repackaging, resizing of packs, introduction of improved formulas and constant advertising. SWOT ANALYSIS FOR OMO DETERGENT Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats Strong customer awareness of the brand Crowded and very competitive market Government vision 20/20 developmental policies Entrance of cheaper substitutes like Bonux (by Procter Gamble Nigeria) and Good Mama detergent (by Eko Supreme Resources Nigeria Ltd.) into the market. Large skilled marketing force Price sensitivity of product Improved road network in rural areas Re-launch of Ariel Enzymax as Ariel Prozim by Procter Gamble Nigeria Plc (M2weekly 2010) Access to home companys resources/technology Small brand product range offering specific advantages to different customer segments Increasing income of middle class Difficulty in accessing credit from local banks in the light the restructuring of the banking sector and global financial crisis. A large number of loyal nationwide distributors Improved electricity supply reducing production costs. Fall in local raw materials production Large local production capacity Growing population and market Increase in import duties on imported raw materials Wide product packaging size range High inflation rate(12 per cent in December 2009) (FreshPlaza 2010) Clear brand positioning Low entry barriers into business FUTURE TRENDS IN THE MARKET Nigerian consumers increasingly want more variety, freedom, quality and want to remove the hassle from washing and save time. With an annual population growth rate of 1.999% from 2009 estimates (Indexmundi 2009), the market for household care products is growing. In 2008, the Fast Moving Consumer Goods sector in Nigeria of which detergents are a large share grew by over 15% to a market size of around 130 billionNGN ( £552 million) (TradeInvestNigeria 2009). Also, with the increase in the income of the middle class and the percentage of the population that constitute this class, the average disposable income per family is increasing at a steady pace. Therefore, over the next few decades, there will be a shift of demand from economy sized goods (15 and 30grams) to family sized goods (200grams and above) as the younger, more educated portion of the population, which form a greater part of the population, with a median age of 19years (Indexmundi 2009) grow older and establish families. Although infrastructural development (especially power supply) is slow on the average, it is quite faster in urban areas like Lagos, Port Harcourt and Kano. These cities make up a large portion of the entire market. In addition, a larger proportion of married women now take up jobs in the private and public sectors, leaving very little time for activities like hand washing. For these reasons, there is a gradual growth in the market for machine wash powders and this is expected to continue over the next two decades. Finally, with government rigorously executing various projects and making policies in line with its plan for Nigeria to be among the first 20 economies in the world by the year 2020, a rapid growth in the infrastructural development especially rural roads is opening up the rural market thereby adding to market growth. ADVERTISING PHILOSOPHY Omo is advertised with a catch phrase Dirt is good, built around the belief that allowing children explore their environments ensures they grow and develop properly. The advertising of Omo is focused on the mother as the target considering she is the main decision maker for the purchase of household care products like detergents. From personal communication with Unilever Nigeria (February 2010), the primary target consumer description is given below. She is a mother in LSM 5 8, aged 23 45yrs. Her children are central to her world and she wants them to develop and explore the world. Laundry is an important part of her life she takes great pride in seeing her family looking good and wearing clean clothes. She cares about great laundry results and her childs development She lives in the urban and semi-urban parts of the country. Unilever Nigeria employs the television, posters and radio advertising to market Omo, each media used to a different degree. Television Omos main advertising is done on television since their target audience always watch television especially in the evenings. The adverts are run during a soap opera and a family breakfast show which run on Thursday (8-10pm) and Saturday mornings (9-10am) respectively weekly. These shows are almost religiously watched by most families and so have a great impact rate for the target audience. Posters These are the other most used media for advertising Omo. Posters are placed on billboards in markets and major roads all over the country. Since the target audience is the woman, and women are the ones who go to markets to do the family shopping, this is a highly effective method. Markets tend to be centralised and most women go shopping at least weekly and so are always exposed to the advert each time they go there. Using posters offers three main advantages for the marketing of this product. Firstly, since power is not constant in the country, posters present an ever visible advert, always present unlike television adverts that will not be seen if there is no power supply during the time when the advert is supposed to run. Secondly, posters also allow the message of the product to be passed to consumers who do not own television sets considering this is the case in certain parts of the country. Thirdly, posters are also made in the major languages of the different states in the cou ntry as Nigeria has over 200 indigenous languages. This is a very big advantage of using posters, as it reduces the cost of advertising which would be ridiculously high if TV commercials of the different languages were to be made. It ensures that the message of the advertising is effectively communicated to the consumers even if they are not very good in English language. Radio Local radio is also employed in the advertisement of Omo. However, it is used to a much lower extent than television and posters. It is mainly employed in the semi-urban and rural areas where most consumers do not watch much television but own radio sets. The adverts are made in either English language, Pidgin English or the major language of the region. The print media is normally not employed in the advertisement of Omo because very few of the women who are the target audience regularly read the dailies and magazines. ADVERTISING PLAN Current consumer perception of brand Most consumers see Omo as an old school (outdated and ineffective) product. believe detergents powders degrade the colours of clothes. Advertising objectives To alter perceptions about Omo. To reassure customers of product quality. To raise impulsive brand awareness from 75 percent to 85 percent. To raise the proportion of consumers describing the brand as effective and value for money to 75 percent. Selected media: Posters (on billboards because of its high perception-altering potential via repetition). Poster advert description The poster will carry a picture of a smiling woman (30-35years old) in brightly coloured Nigerian attire (attire will be changed to match the cultural and religious attire of women in different regions so as to cause the consumers in the region to identify with the advert) on a white background, carrying the brand colours (red, blue and white) on the left portion of the picture. Brand colours will be bold on poster to enable easy identification of the brand even before seeing its name. The right side of the poster will contain a picture of a large amount of colourful clean clothing folded in a stack (wide range of bright colours to be chosen to emphasize colour caring and preserving qualities of Omo). The woman in the picture will be holding an Omo 15grams sachet in her right hand next to the stack of folded clothing (to emphasize that a small amount can clean many clothes) while the products in their different sized packs are displayed at the bottom left of the poster (to show the c ustomer the range of choices available). The brand name Omo will be placed in the poster in large print, second in size only to the phrase Brilliant results always (to highlight the excellent cleaning and colour-preserving ability of Omo)which will run across the centre of a major part of the poster (but does not overlap the clothes). Response/what we want them to believe: Omo has super stain removing ability, A small amount washes a large quantity of clothes Omo does not deteriorate colours Languages to be used in adverts English, Pidgin English and the three main national languages (Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo). Where adverts will be displayed State capital city centres, major markets and roads in the cities and select towns. Timing Six months. Media scheduling Periodic over six months. Results expected Brand to come first in their mind when they think washing To establish the brand and position it in the market as the best for washing Criteria by which success will be judged Change in market share and turnover. Budget A budget of 250millionNGN ( £1.07million) is proposed for this advert. This is justified by the increase in revenue the advert will generate. A 10% increase in revenue (which is 969.2millionNGN from Table 1) will cover the advert and marketing costs and give a reasonable profit. CONCLUSION Omos strong brand presence has kept it over the years. However, a selling concept rather than a marketing concept has been employed for Omo over the years resulting in loss of market share. Constant research should be carried out to keep up with changes in consumer needs. With new emphasis on what consumers want from the product, effective marketing and product promotion, a turnaround can be expected.

Process Paper How To Get On Th :: essays research papers

Process Paper: How to get on the net The Internet is a very important tool for communicating, learning, and just surfing. To utilize the capabilities of the “Net'; one must have a phone line, a computer with a modem, and an Internet Service Provider (ISP). Computers can usually be found at any electronic store. The store should also have information on how a local ISP can be found. The Internet Service Provider that you find will give you the essential software needed to connect to the Internet. Once the software is successfully installed, make sure a phone line is hooked up with the computer’s modem. You can do this buy running phone wire from the nearest phone jack to the back of your computer. A modem slot can be found in the back of you computer, and it will usually have “Modem'; written above it. Once the phone line is hooked up, you can enter your computer and start up your web browser. Your web browser icon should say “Internet Explorer,'; “Netscape,'; or “The Internet.'; Once you have located the icon, double click it (click twice with the primary mouse button). This should bring up a “Dial-up Networking'; window with “username'; and “password'; spaces. Type in the username and password that your ISP gave you. As soon as all the data is entered, click the “Connect'; button at the bottom of the window. It should take about one minute before a window pops up with a timer telling you how long you have been connected. This is important so if you have a limited number of hours for the month, you can manage your time connected to the Internet. Now that you are connected, it is possible to take advantage of the Internet’s capabilities. You should start off by going to a search engine: yahoo.com, lycos. com, altavista.com, hotbot.com, and many others. You can start these by going to the file menu, clicking open, and then typing in the address (i.e.

Environmental Issue Essay

The current concern of our environmentalist nowadays is how to bring back the bountiful natural resources of our venue of living before. This is just a dream but this can be true because nowadays everything is possible. It is, indeed, a great challenge of this environmentalist to provide solutions of the problems manifested in our environment. Before presenting my arguments, I would like first to secure the parameters of this debate. I limit this debate to one of the hottest issues in the environment which is Air Pollution. Air Pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulates or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organism. Looking at the status quo, it is obscene that there are a lot of sources that made our air contaminated. First point, I content that the severity of catastrophe happened in our environment deeply rooted from anthropogenic sources (human activity) such as â€Å"Stationary Sources† as smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities and municipal waste incinerators. â€Å"Mobile Sources† as motor vehicles, aircraft etc., marine Vessels such as container ship or cruise ships and related port air pollution, burning wood, fireplace, stoves, furnaces, fumes from hair spray, varnish, paint, aerosol spray and other solvent, oil refining and industrial activity in general. These things respond the question of why our air is being contaminated. Second point, I would like also to argue that the government plays a vital role in protecting our environment. The government has the prowess to make some possible and practical solutions of environmental problems. They have enough budgets to initiate some activity and project that would cater the protection and preservation of our natural resources. To sum up my arguments, first the main problem is the human activity that deteriorates our environment and second is the irresponsible action of the government. We can make a difference as by letting ourselves as an example because change starts in ourselves. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Air_pollution#Sources This page was last modified on 22 March 2008, at 18:53. All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for details. ) Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a U. S. registered 501(c)(3) tax-deductible nonprofit charity.

Development Of Radiographer Led Procedures Health And Social Care Essay

This scrutiny has been carried out on patients as a complete scrutiny. With the development of radiographer-led processs there is move towards giving a direct reply to put of the clinical indicants and inquiry and so orienting the scrutiny to suit this demand. The Ba sup can therefore moderately be split into a figure of ‘subexaminations ‘ when the clinical image has a definite way. Upper high Ba sup, this scrutiny is used for patients who have high dysphagia or definite oesophageal symptoms, or have rather frequently had a normal OGD but there are still have diagnostic that mean: rather frequently a motility upset may be cause. The technique is the patient is asked to stand erect in the AP place on the fluoroscopic tabular array and keep the cup of Ba in their manus, normally the left, as farther turning of the patient is normally to the left. The arm will so lie clear of the bole, without the patient holding to negociate its motion around the escalating screen passenger car. The patient is turned into a sidelong place in order to get down with everyday appraisal of possible aspiration, if this instance the scrutiny should be terminated instantly. They are asked to take a normal sized for them mouthful of the liquid and keep it in their oral cavity until asked to get down. This is to give the operator a opportunity to focus on on the country of involvement and optimise the collimation. If the radiographic equipment allows, a frame rate of 3 per second is suggested as an initial pick, modern digital equipment can let recording of the screened image. This frequently a radiation dosage decrease by leting retrospective and repeated survey of the patients get downing action without returning to the rescreen missed actions, and besides allows a more existent clip appraisal to take topographic point. The patient is so asked to get down and the exposure is initiated. Real clip recording is terminated when the Ba bolus passes beyond the screened image or po int of involvement. The AP position is the optimum for hypopharyngeal anatomy, it will be seen in individual and dual contrast images. This position can so be repeated at least one time more to guarantee there is consistence in the image, doing it easier to definitively place pathology. The patient is so turned into the sidelong place and the same process of taking a mouthful and get downing on petition is imaged. This position allows the posterior wall to be optimally viewed. The most common abnormalcies shown are relentless cricopharyngeal feelings or diverticulae, the most common diverticulum type being zenkers this occurs in the mid-hypopharynx and is more common in the older population. They are rather frequently termed hypopharyngeal pouches. The pouches can go rather big, frequently doing patients to be referred due to regurgitation of undigested nutrient some clip after they have eaten. They are besides frequently hard to endoscope as the range enters the pouch and can non b e passed farther. The Ba sup can therefore rather frequently be the most appropriate trial for corroborating the presence and extent of this pathology. Oesophageal webs are besides best seen on the sidelong projection, shown on the anterior wall, although they are best viewed with rapid imaging sequences, they have been noted in 1-5 % of diagnostic patients and 12-15 % of dysphagia patients. Barium sup and the reflux appraisal is patient for this type of survey frequently present with clinical symptoms of GOR. They frequently have a feeling of retrosternal uncomfortableness and no other symptoms. Although pH monitoring is an effectual manner of rating GOR, there is non every bit yet a gilded criterion test.the Ba survey can still be utile as an adjunct to other trials, as some GOR patients may hold little suspension hernias that are non seen on endoscopy. These patients frequently have mucosal alterations in the distal tierce of the gorge, so the sup is used to see the part closely and detect the fundus to look into for herniation. Technique for this testes is AP and sidelong projections can be taken of the gorge as antecedently described for the Ba sup. A more utile position of the distal tierce of the gorge is provided by the erect left posterior oblique, taken after the patients is asked to get down. The Ba bolus is imaged as a column and athletics movies taken to demo the distal tierce of the distal tierce of the gorge. This allows mucosal rings and peptic stenosiss to be shown good. As the column base on ballss and the mucous membrane relaxes, spor movies can be taken this frequently shown oesophagitis. The patient is the asked to take the effervescent granules either dry or assorted with a little sum of H2O if dry is excessively hard, or other effervescent assistance, followed by the citric acid. It is of import to affect on the patient that these will bring forth gas in the tummy and may give them the feeling that they need to burp, it is imperative the y do non yield to enticement and the best manner to avoid this is to state them to maintain swallowing. Advance account of this, giving grounds for its importance, will maximise conformity. The patient is so asked to get down another mouthful of Ba whilst in the LPO place and images can be taken of the lower gorge. This will give a dual contrast scrutiny of gorge, leting a good expression at mucosal item. To observe marks of a suspension hernia or GOR, the fluoroscopic sofa is so placed horizontally and the patient turned to their right to measure reflux. Sport images of the country are taken. The patient is so asked to revolve through 360 at their ain gait, this will guarantee coating of all facets of the stomachic mucous membrane ready for appraisal of the tummy. Whilst they are executing this motion it is best to test sporadically in instance any extra lower oesophageal pathology is noted so that a athletics image of the lower oesopagus and gastroesopahageal junction can be taken . On finishing this tactic, farther images of the tummy are taken at cardinal phases: foremost, the patient is asked to turn to their left ( LOP ) where a athletics images is taken. Second, turned back to supine ( AP ) . Third, turned to their right ( RPO ) . And the patient is returned to the vertical place, turned somewhat to their left and an erect ( LPO ) movie is taken to demo the distal orsophagus and the fundus of the tummy. To demo reflux really happening, the patient can be tilted caput downwards ( Trendelenburg place ) as this mimics stress reflux but, as this is an unreal place, it may hold limited bearing on the truth appraisal of the true extent of reflux. If reflux is demonstrated the freedom with which it occurs and the degree it attains should be note as this will be an assistance to the clinician in the appraisal of the patient. It is noted nevertheless, that reflux may merely happen in approximately a 3rd of diagnostic patient. Preparation of patient to all scrutin y upper piece of land is, the patien should hunger for least 6 hours before the scrutiny but 5 hours is considered equal by some. It is suggested that this should be the instance even if merely Ba sup is indicated, in instance positions of the tummy are found to be required, this avoids the patient holding to return for a 2nd scrutiny. All jewelry or artifacts illustration hearing AIDSs should be removed. Patient vesture should be removed and a patient gown should be worn. The patient should so be informed of the process they should have information with their assignment prior to go toing, so they can give their consent. Complication with instructions on the famishment period should be checked. ESOPHAGRAM PROCEDURE. Two common radiographic processs of the upper GI system affecting the disposal of contrast media are the esophagram, or Ba sup, buttocks it is sometimes referred to, and the upper GI series. Each of these processs is described in item, get downing the esophagram. An esophagram, or Ba sup is the common radiographic process or scrutiny of the pharnx and gorge, using a radiopaque contrast media may be used. The intent of an esophagram is to analyze radiographically the signifier and map of the get downing facets of the pharnx and gorge. No contraindications exist for esophagrams except possible sensitiveness to the contrast media used. The engineer should find whether the patient has a history of sensitiveness to barium sulphate or water-soluble contrast media. Because the gorge is empty most the clip, patient need no readying for an esophagram unless upper GI series is to follow. When combined with an upper GI, or if the primary interested is the lower gorge, readying for the UGI takes precedency. For an esophagram merely, all vesture and anything metallic between the oral cavity and the waist should be removed, and the patient should have on a infirmary gown. Before the fluoroscopic process a pertinent history should be taken and the scrutiny carefully explained to the patient. The first portion of an esophagram involves fluoroscopy with a positive-contrast medium. The scrutiny room should be clean, tidy, and appropriated stocked before the patient is escorted to the room. The appropriate sum and type of contrast medium should be ready. Esophagrams by and large use both thin and thick Ba. Extra points utile in the sensing of a radiolucent foreign organic structure are cotton balls soaked in thin Ba, Ba pills or gelatin capsules filled with BaSO, and marsmallows. After get downing any one of these three substances, the patient is asked to get down an extra thin Ba mixture. Because the esophagrams begins with the tabular array in the perpendicular place the footbo ard should be in topographic point and tested for security. Lead aprons, compaction paddle, and lead baseball mitts should be provided for the radiotherapist, ass good as lead aprons for all other forces in the room. Proper radiation protection methods must be observed at all times during fluoroscopy. Fluoroscopy with the room prepared and the patient ready, the patient and radiotherapist are introduced and the patients history and the ground for the test discussed. The fluoroscopic scrutiny normally begins with a general study of patients chest including bosom, lungs and stop, and the venters. During fluoroscopy, the technologist responsibilities in general are to follow the radiotherapist instructions, assist patient as needed, and hasten the process in any mode possible because the scrutiny in begun in the vertical or vertical place, a cup of thin Ba is placed in the patient left manus near to the left shoulder. The patient so is instructed to follow radiotherapist instructions r efering how much to imbibe and when. The radiotherapist observes the flow of Ba with the roentgenoscope. Swallowing of thin Ba is observed with the patient in assorted places. Similar place may be used while the patient swallows thick Ba. The usage of thick Ba allows better visual image of mucosal forms and any lesion within the gorge. The type of Ba mixture to be used, nevertheless, is determined by the radiotherapist. After the unsloped surveies, horizontal and Trendelenburg places with midst and thin Ba may follow. A patient is shown in place for an RAO projection with a cup of thin Ba. The throat and cervical gorges are normally studied fluoroscopically with athletics movie, whereas the chief part of the esophagus down to the tummy is surveies both with fluoroscopy and with postfluoroscopy overhead radiogram. Presentation of esophageal reflux is the diagnosing of possible esophageal reflux o regurgition of stomachic contents may happen during fluoroscopy or an esophagram. One or more of the undermentioned processs may be performed to observe esophageal reflux ; take a breathing exercising, H2O trial, compaction paddle technique and toe- touch manoeuvre.